A Review Of Controlled Release Fertilizers Biology Essay

A Review Of Controlled Release Fertilizers Biology Essay In general, plants must be supplied with nutrients during the whole vegetation period. In horticulture this is achieved by applying quickly soluble fertilizer once to twice a week, for example. This kind of fertilizer application is very labour-intensive and requires considerable specialist knowledge, so as to select the correct rate of application, appropriate time of application and correct composition for the particular plants to ensure optimum plant production. With the use of slow or controlled release fertilizers the full amount of nutrients necessary for the whole vegetation period can be applied at the time of planting or at the earliest stages of plant growth, in the form of a nutrient pool Also, about half of the applied fertilizers, depending on the method of application and soil condition, is lost to the environment, which results in the contamination of water [1].This kind of environmental concerns of feeding crops with traditional fertilizers has led to developing Slow Release Fertilizers (SRFs) or Controlled Release Fertilizers (CRFs). SRFs or CRFs are easy and safe to use. They reduce risk of incorrect fertilizer application; they are labour saving; and minimize nutrient losses by leaching or fixation. The idea of producing SRFs was developed from 1963 by encapsulation of fertilizers by waxes. After that, these products have been commercialized. There are lots of SRF and CRF brands; market leader in controlled release fertilizers is Scotts Professional with key brands such as Osmocote Exact, Sierrablen and Osmoform. SunGro Company is also producing controlled release fertilizers with brand name of Multicoate. AGLUKON is also another commercialized SRF product [2-4]. Like lots of scientific fields, agriculture industry has been over shadowed by nanotechnology. Applications of nanotechnology in agriculture includes agriculture crop improvement, nanobiotechnology analysis of gene expression and regulation soil management, plant disease diagnostics, efficient pesticides and fertilizers, water management, bioprocessing, post harvest technology, monitoring the identity and quality of agricultural produce and precision agriculture[5]. Efficient pesticides and fertilizers in terms of Nano-composite based slow release fertilizers are developing in current decades. Using nanoparticles as reinforcing or cementing agent of polymer coatings has been the only feature of nano particles which is used in preparing slow release fertilizers [6,7]. Fertilizers Fertilizers are applied to soil to promote plant growth. They contain some beneficial nutrients including macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium which are added to soil in quantities from0.2% to 4.0% (on a dry matter weight basis) and are more essential than micronutrients. Micronutrients are elements which are applied to soil in much smaller amounts, ranging from 5 to 200 ppm, or less than 0.02% dry weigh. These elements could be sulfur (S), boron (B), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), molybdenum (Mo), zinc (Zn)[8,9]. 2.2. Types of fertilizers Fertilizers would be categorized from source of being and also from release properties points of view. All fertilizers could be organic or synthetic from source of being point of view. Organic fertilizers are naturally occurred including seaweed, worm casting, manure, slurry, peat, humic acid, guano and brassin. They provide slow release of nutrient as they need soils bacteria to be broken down to needed elements. Also, they may improve the biodiversity of soil by supplying organic matters and micronutrients for organisms. Organic fertilizers are cheaper and safer than synthetic fertilizers [9,10]. The main synthetic or mineral fertilizers are urea, ammonium sulphate, ammonium phosphate, phosphate rock, potassium chloride, super phosphates, calcium ammonium nitrate, potassium sulphate and NPK, PK and PK compound fertilizers. The most important drawbacks of synthetic fertilizer is their long term sustainability. Also, they are more expensive in contrast to organic fertilizers [10]. Also, fertilizers can be categorized into ordinary and controlled release fertilizers from release properties points of view. Drawbacks of non- controlled release fertilizers Ordinary fertilizers leach to soil very quickly and most of them are not used by the plants. According to figures about 40-70% of nitrogen, 80-90% of phosphorous, and 50-70% of the applied normal fertilizer is lost to environment and cannot be used by plants[11]. This rapid leaching will cause burning of plants and growing in spurts. Also, the lost elements will make some serious problems for our environment. Eutrophication, Blue baby syndrome, soil acidification, persistent organic pollutants, heavy metal accumulation, atmospheric effects are environmental concerns of ordinary fertilizers. Another result of quick leaching of fertilizer is repeating the application of fertilizers which will increase the costs[8,12,13]. Slow or controlled release fertilizers Slow release fertilizers or controlled release fertilizers are coated in a substance that enables a slow release time and eliminates need for constant fertilization and higher efficiency rate than soluble fertilizers [14]. The interest in these materials is for one or more of the following reasons: Availability of nutrients during the hole growing-season; reduced nutrient loss via leaching and run-off; reduced cost and labor outlay in crop production; reduced chemical and biological immobilization reactions in soil which cause plant unavailable forms; reduction of rapid nitrification and nitrogen loss through ammonia volatilization and denitrification; reduced seed or damage from high local concentrations of salts; reduced leaf burn from heavy rates of surface-applied fertilizers; better seasonal distribution of growth and better acclimatization in home or display environment; improved storage and handling of fertilizer materials[15]. Differences between slow and controlled release fertilizers Although there is no a special difference in general function of CRF and SRF, but it should be mentioned that they are manufactured by different materials and techniques with different properties. In slow release fertilizers elements are present in the fertilizers in a chemical form, which is not available to plants and they will be converted by physiochemical effects or microorganisms activities into nutrient forms in the soil. But in controlled release fertilizers elements are packed in coated granules and are released through the coating over a certain period of time. Also, in SRFs nutrients available period is affected by a lot of factors such as water content of soil, Ph, temperature, microorganisms activity, aeration. However, the longevity of CRF depends on coating thickness and temperature of soil. Only coating method is effective in changing pattern of nutrients release and a fixed coating thickness control nutrients release. In CRFs declared release time refers to soil temp erature of 20-21 oC. Higher temperatures accelerate the element release and lower temperatures make it longer [4,16]. SRFs are chemically prepared slow released. Some kinds of SRFs are Urea Aldehydes (UA) and Chelated Micronutrients(CM). Common type of UAs is urea formaldehyde which is high nitrogen fertilizer. Starting release rate of UAs is high but it dies off slowly for 3 years. This kind of fertilizer depends on microorganisms to break it down for plant use. CMs are substances that hold firmly together iron, manganese, zinc, and copper. They slowly releases over a long period of time [17]. 2.4.2. Types of CRFs 2.4.2.1. Sulfur Coated (SC) Elemental sulfur when is oxidized to its sulfate form would be one of the nutrients which is essential for some plants and is normally blended with other fertilizers. Using sulfur coating is also another way to provide sulfur simultaneously with making slow release properties for a core granular fertilizer. As the sulfur containing materials like polysulfides or lingosulfonate are brittle and also give a low wetting of defects they are normally mixed with waxes or plasticizers. Many formulas are available for SCs. Their release time is generally 3-4 months. SDs are released by microorganisms [18-22] 2.4.2.2. Wax coated (WC) One of the methods of reducing fertilizer release rate is dispersing granular fertilizers with molten wax and then cooling the mixture below the melting point of the wax [23]. Paraffin is one of the most used wax as a coating for fertilizers. Paraffin  wax   is a white, tasteless, odorless, waxy solid, with a typical melting point between about 47  °C and 64  °[24]. Other types of waxes are synthetic oil based, petroleum or mineral waxes. Waxes are normally used by an additive or a tackifiere agent to make a good sealing properties [25,26] 2.4.2.3. Polymer Coated (PC) Polymer-coated fertilizers (PCF) represent the most technically advanced controlled released fertilizers. They include a water-soluble fertilizer core and one or more than one layers of polymer. There are large varieties of polymers to coat the core fertilizer also the coatings layer could be the same one or different. In PC fertilizers release of nutrients will happen by diffusion through a semi permeable polymer membrane. Water penetrates the coating and dissolves the core. Release rate can be controlled by varying the composition and thickness of the coating. In addition, pressure builds up can cause cracks to form, from which fertilizer passes into the soil [27, 28]. 2.5. Review of preparation methods of different polymer coated CRFs 2.5.1. Sole Polymer coated One type of polymer coated CRFs is the one which the fertilizer core which could be N, P, K OR NPK compound, is just coated with one or more than one layer of polymer coating. In this case the polymer could be solvent based or water-based. The application process starts with dissolving the polymer in a organic solvent or water. After dissolving the coating will be sprayed onto the fertilizer in a coating drum or fluid bed [29]. Benefits of polymer coated CRFs are as follow; uniform and defect free coating will surround fertilizer; the coating will be very tough and durable which is resistant against mechanical breakdown; they are biologically inactive so they will not breakdown by soil microbes. In most cases except for degradable polymers release of fertilizers will be happen by diffusion through polymer coat rather than through defects. In some other coated fertilizers like sulfur coatings there should be a flaw in coating to make release of fertilizer. There are lots of examples for polymers which have been used in literatures as coating for fertilizers, some of them are as follow; dicyclopentadien[30],Urea and urethane based [31-36], epoxy based [ 37-39], polyvinylidene chloride-based latex[29] carboxyl-carrying ethylene polymers[40], biodegradable starch based[41], urea formaldehyde[42]. However, polymer coated fertilizers have some week points. About solvent-based coatings using large amount of organic solvents like toluene or xylene will lead to environmental concerns. These solvents are volatile and releasing them to environment makes some hazards for human health. Also, polymer coatings are more expensive than sulfur coatings; the process and equipments are also more complex than equipments used for other coatings. 2.5.2. Sulfur-polymer coated One of most common coated fertilizers are the ones in which core fertilizer is covered by a layer of sulfur coating and a layer of polymer. The polymer layer can be primer or outer layer; means that sulfur layer in some researches has been the first layer and in some others the outer layer. Sulfur Using coating is a suggested method to remove drawbacks of sulfur coated CRFs. One of these drawbacks is very fast release of fertilizer in first few days after application. The other one is brittleness of sulfur coatings which may lead to some fractures during handling or storage and losing the fertilizer into soil. Another problem is that sulfur coatings have a high surface tension with water and cannot provide enough wetting for a good diffusion [19, 29, 38, 21]. The most common method for applying the sulfur coating is spray. Molten sulfur compound will be sprayed over a pre-polymer coated fertilizer granule [38,43]. 2.5.3. Wax-polymer coated There are lots of researches focusing on making controlled release fertilizers using Wax-polymer coatings. Wax layer has three major benefits; one is that they are applied over the polymer layer for decreasing the fracture probability of coating and the other one is for decreasing the amount of polymer and avoiding consuming more polymers to make the process cost effective. Also, they can eliminate imperfection of granules surface to make a good surface coating. Most common waxes which have been used in state of the art is C30 alpha-olefin and paraffin. Other petroleum products like lubricants and bitumen or natural products like canola oil, soybean oil, coconut oil and palm oil, also have been used. After melting the wax it will be applied by mixing with polymer coated fertilizer. Normally the polymer is thermoset to avoid any damages of polymer by the wax in its melting point. The wax normally should have drop melting point from 50 to 120 °C. Wax is normally about 0.2% to 10 % by weight of fertilizer [25, 38, 44, 45]. 2.5.4. Filler- polymer coated As mentioned before, despite lots of advantages of polymer coating to make slow release properties when such polymers are used as a sole coating material the ultimate product would be expensive as you have to consume large amount of polymer. Using mineral or organic fillers is one way to avoid using large amount of polymer. Also, in some researches fillers play the role of detackifier, to prevent adherence of coated granules to each other, and strengthening agent [46]. Fillers may be used either as a mixture with polymer to make a nano-composite polymer [47] or as a separate layer. The most common method is second one in which the filler will be added and mixed with polymer coated granules before drying the granules. Most common used fillers are some very fine(less than 20 microns) inert inorganic materials like clay, diatomaceous earth, bentonite, kaolin, gypsum powdered limestone, talc, barium sulfate. Some other fillers like waste cellulosic materials also have used as filler in combination with polymer.[47-51] 2.6. Techniques coating application According to studies have been done; encapsulation methods of fertilizers can be divided into three methods including in-situ, spray and mixing. 2.6.1. In situ This method includes formation of fluid dispersion of the soluble fertilizer in a solvent and mixing the prepared solution with monomers of a polymer. Polymerization will happen and depend on the method; granules or particles of fertilizers will form. Ni et al [52] have developed a double-coated urea fertilizer. For preparation of poly (N-vinyl-pyrrolidone) hydrogels containing urea (PCU), the monomer and a solution of urea in N-vinyl-pyrrolidone were mixed together. The polymerization was carried out at 65à ¢- ¦C for 3 h. The resulting samples were vacuum-dried, milled, screened and stored. After that first coating was dried sample and some amounts of urea were mixed with sodium alginate (SA) solution. Mixed solution was then added drop wise into 5% (w/w) CaCl2 aqueous solution and stirred constantly. The drops immediately turned into granules (about 4mm in diameter) because the SA in the drop was crosslinked by Ca2+ at once. The granules were filtered and dried in oven at 70à ¢- ¦ C. Then the granules were added to ethylcellulose ethanol solution. Multiple EC coatings were prepared by immersion of the previously coated granules into the Ethylcellulose (EC) solution repeatedly. Thus, EC-coated urea granules with different coating thickness were obtained. Hanafi et al [53], have coated a compound fertilizer by polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyacrylamide (PA), natural rubber (NR), and polylactic acid (PLA) using in situ method. For encapsulation of compound fertilizer with polyacrylamide the granules were added to the solution mixture of monomers. Then the polymerization reaction will start in existence of fertilizers. The thickness of the coating layer on the compound fertilizer granules, determined by SEM, gave PVC compound coated fertilizer the highest value of 3.04 lm, and the lowest was obtained by PA (2.04  µm). Variation in the characteristics of the polymers would be utilized in producing CR compound fertilizer that fit the requirements of growing plants. Hudson et al [38] used epoxy to coat the fertilizer. In this research the urea granules were charged to a pan and warmed to 95 °C. Then the hydrogenated tallaw amine, 2-amino ethyl peperazine and bisphenol A diglycidyl ether were mixed and were added to the granules; meanwhile polymerization happened and prepared mixture was agitated till the fertilizer granules dried. 2.6.2. Spray method This method is most common method for coating the fertilizer granules in state of the art[. Usually, the solution of polymer in a suitable solvent is sprayed on the granule of fertilizer and then the granules are dried to remove the solvent through evaporation. The treatment is repeated as often as necessary until the desired coating percentage is reached. Lan et al [54] have used Chitosan and poly(acrylic acid-co-acrylamide) as biodegradable polymers to coat the NPK fertilizer. The NPK was compound fertilizer granules with about 2 mm in diameter. It was placed in a rotary drum and then the Chitson powder which was dissolved in epoxy-aceton solution was sprayed over the fertilizer. After drying the coating , Chitson coated granules were added to a flask equipped with a mechanical mixer. Carbon tetracholoride, polyethylene glycoloctyl phenyl ether, sorbite anhydride monostearic acid ester, solution of acrylic acid acrylamide , N,N- methylenebisacrylamide and ammonium persulfate was slowly added to the flask. After mixing the coated granules were dried in oven. This product with good controlled-release and water-retention capacity, being degradable in soil and environment-friendly, could be especially useful in agricultural and horticultural applications. Tomaszewska et al [55] have used spray technique for encapsulation of fertilizers. In order to improve the properties of coatings, the granules of previously coated fertilizer (wet method) were sprayed with a polymer solution or pure solvent (N,N dimethylformamide). Concentration of the polymer in solutions used for spraying was in the range of 13-17 wt%. Measurements of thickness, porosity of prepared coatings and microphotographic observation of the coatings were taken. Ma et al [56] have developed a method for encapsulation of fertilizer with a self assembled coating. The fertilizer granules were heated in a rotary drum to 75 °C for 10 minutes. Then the self assembling amphiphilic molecules (N,N-bisaminoethyl eleostearate) were sprayed over the fertilizer. After 20 minutes aliphatic isocyanates were sprayed over fertilizer. This process was repeated once again. The fertilizer kept for drying in the 75 °C for 20 minutes. Dai et al [57], have developed a controlled release fertilizer using a water soluble resin as a coating. The granular compound fertilizer was coated in fluidized bed. Lan et al [58], prepared a double-coated slow-release NPK compound fertilizer with superabsorbent and water-retention properties (DSFSW), whose inner coating was chitosan (CTS), and the outer coating was crosslinked poly(acrylic acid)/diatomite-containing urea (PAADU). This prepared product not only has slow-release property but also could absorb a large amount of water and preserve the soil moisture at the same time. In addition, the outer coating (PAADU) could protect the inner coating (CTS) from mechanical damage. These were significant advantages over the normal slow release or controlled-release fertilizers, which generally have only a slow-release property. The results indicated that the DSFSW could be found an application in agriculture and horticulture, especially in drought-prone regions where the availability of water is insufficient. At first the outer coating containing urea diatomite (PAADU) was prepared. The NPK compound fertilizer granule was placed into a rotary drum, and the Chitosan powder was stuck on the granules by means of epoxy dissolved in acetone. The adhesive was applied by spraying at regular time intervals. The process was finished until compact and homogeneous coating formed on fertilizer granule. The coated granules were dried to a constant mass at room temperature for 6 h. Then the CTS-coated NPK compound fertilizer granules were obtained. CTS-coated NPK compound fertilizer granules were dipped in water and then were immediately placed on PAADU powder and shaken. In this manner, PAADU could adhere to the surface of CTS-coated NPK compound fertilizer and form the outer coating. The surface of the product was crosslinked by spraying methanol solution of epoxy chloropropane and then dried in a 70  °C oven to obtain the final product, i.e., the double-coated slow-release NPK compound fertilizer with superabsorbent and water-retention. Hansen et al [36], encapsulate the granular fertilizer with the epoxy resin using spray method. In this research not coated fertilizer was placed in a rotating drum and pre heated to 250 ° F. A rapid drying solution of copolymers dicyclopentadiene and a modified vegetable oil were applied over fertilizer using spray in a thin stream of resin. Simultaneously hot air was passed through drum. Next monomers of second resin including a mixture of epoxidized soybean oil and polyester curing agent were applied over prepared granules. The solvent was a mixture of xylol and Cellosolve acetate. Hansen et al [39] also have used the above mentioned method for encapsulation of fertilizer with polyurethane. First of all the preheated fertilizer was coated by a synthetic drying oil. After drying the coating for a few minutes fertilizer were dusted by clay. Then Urethane solution in xylene and Cellosolve acetate were applied using spray. 2.6.3.Simple mixing In this method granules are simply mixed with the coating at its melting point or with a solution of polymer in a suitable solvent. Tomaszewska et al [59] used this method for coating the granular NPK fertilizer with polysulfone (PSF), cellulose acetate (CA) and polyacrylonitrile (PAN). The coating solutions were prepared by the dissolution of the solid polymer in adequate solvent. The NPK fertilizer was successively added to adequate polymer solution, and was covered by a thin layer of the solution. Subsequently, granules were dropped into water, where the gelation process takes place. The coated granules were removed from the precipitation bath and then dried to a constant mass. The multiple coatings were prepared by immersion of the single coated fertilizer into adequate polymer solution, then into water and drying. Hon [47] has prepared the coated granules by mixing method. After melting the thermoplastic polymer by heating, the cellulosic additive has been added to melt resin. Then after allowing the temperature to drop, for avoiding the fertilizer damage, the granules or powder fertilizer has been mixed with the prepared mixture using a Brabender Mixer. Markusch et al[60] just has mixed the fertilizer pellets with at first, a diluted polyol and then with a diluted isocyantae to make a polyurethane coating. Then the feretilizer were placed in oven for drying. 2.7. Special equipment for application of polymer coating Typical physical method for encapsulating fertilizers are spray coating, spray drying, pan coating, rotary disk atomization. Special equipments for these methods are rotary drum, pan or ribbon or paddle mixer, fluidized. Fluidized bed and rotary drums are the most important equipments [87, 88] Polymers used as coating for CRFs A broad range of polymers has been used in fertilizer coating. These polymers could be thermoset, thermoplastic or biodegradable. Some of common thermoset polymers are urethane resin, epoxy resin, alkyd resin, unsaturated polyester resin, phenol resin, urea resin, melamine resin, phenol resin, silicon resin. Among them, urethane resin urethane is very common used.[36,61] Thermoplastic resins are not very common used in art because of some problems. As mentioned before a very preferable method of applying polymers is spraying the dissolved polymer over granules. Either some of thermoplastic resins are not soluble in a solvent or make a very viscose solution which is not suitable for spraying. Polyolefine is used in art for coating the fertilizer granules [47,62]. Biopolymers, dispose in bioactive environments, degrade by the enzymatic action of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae and their polymer chains may also be broken down by non enzymatic processes such as chemical hydrolysis. Non-biodegradable polymers are not environmental friendly. Due to environmental concerns there are some trends of replacing non-bio with bio degradable polymers as coating material from 1970s. But it should be mentioned that they are expensive yet and not very cost effective. Also, in production process durability of polymer should be adjusted with release time of fertilizer. Among natural and synthetic biopolymers starch and cellulose based polymers, chitosan (a linear  polysaccharide),poly lactic acid and poly(ÃŽÂ µ-caprolactone) due to low cost and abundance are some of used biopolymers in fertilizer industry[41,52,58,63-69] 2.5. Coating thickness Generally, polymer coatings are applied in a thickness which is suitable to make a desired controlled release property. Thickness could be related to characteristic of polymer and also it depends on existed porosity of polymer surface. If water vapor transmission rate of coating material is 0.01 to 20, coating thickness would be 1 to 100 microns. Preferred coating thickness is 1 to 50 microns. Coating process could be repeated more than one layer to get desired nutrient release [49]. 2.6. Investigation of release behavior of CRFs Release mechanism for different coatings is different. Thick encapsulated granules like sulfur coating will allow the nutrient to release when a flaw or rupture appears on the coating surface. In this case, rupture will happen because of permeation of water into coating and inside osmotic pressure. Also, biodegradable polymers will release nutrients while destroying by soil microbes activity. Polymer coatings or combination of different coatings will happen by diffusion of water through walls porosities. In this case release rate of can be controlled by the particle size of coated granules, thickness of coating and permeability of coating surface. Also, altering the chemical composition of fertilizer core and the coating will change permeability of coating; means that even basic or acidic environment will change the permeability. In some researches when the coating has been starch-vinyl, increasing size of encapsulated granules has led to slowing down the nutrient release [70, 71]. There are some standard test methods for measurement of controlled release properties. According To European standard the standard release time of N during 24 h should be 15% of total core nutrient. Also, release rate for 15 day should be 75% of total nutrients. Also American and Japanese standards say that the initial release shouldnt be more than 40% of total nutrient. According to European standards for measuring the release rate encapsulated fertilizer should be immersed in pure water at 25  °C (room temperature) in incubated state [72, 73]. For example Detrick et all[43] have investigated the release behavior of their product by immersion of 20 g of encapsulated granules for 8 h in water. After filtration of solid they dried the solid. Evaporation of water was done at 100  °C for 8 hours. Also, Ma et all [31] placed 14 g of granules in wire mesh holder into a jar with 300 ml water at 23  °C and agitated ir by an orbital shaker. Then, the adequate water was taken for elemental analysis.. Locquenghien et al [40] for investigation the slow release effect of fertilizer some amounts of fertilizer were continuously extracted with water. For this purpose the granules were arranged in layer in a cylindrical vessel field with water. Water was passed through this layer and its Nitrogen content was analyzed. 2.8. Commercial CRFs in world and Malaysia Urea-formaldehydes are oldest slow release products which were produced in 1936 and then were commercialized in 1970s. These products were known as Ureaform, Bluchip, Nitroform Methex and Nutralene. After that Tennessee Valley introduced sulfur coated urea technology in1960s.Polymer coated fertilizers were produced as early as 1970 in Japan. Most important commercialized polymer coated CRFs are Osmocote, Nutricote [74] Osmocote CRFs are NPK granules coated by a thermoset copolymer of dicyclopentadiene and a glycerol ester (linseed oil) dissolved in an aliphatic hydrocarbon solvent. The Osmocote CRFs are normally used for ornamental horticulture production like greenhouses, nurseries , citrus , and strawberry production[75]. Nutricote prills are encapsulated by thermoplastic resins likeas polyolefins, polyvinylidene chloride. The process of Nuricote involves dissolving polymer in fast-drying chlorinated hydrocarbon solvents and then applying the solution to a variety of nutrient substrates including urea, potassium sulfate, diammonium phosphate, ammonium nitrate and potassium chloride. Blendin the polymer with talc and ethylene-vinyl acetate has been done to obtain desired release rate[76] Sierra, Lesco and polyon are some other commercialaized CRFs in the world. In Malaysia two brands named Greenfeed[77] and KAMILA[78] has developed slow release fertilizer. Greenfeed contains Zeolite which helps to release nutrients when it is in contact with soil. KAMILA is specially formulated for oil plantation industry. 2.9. Tracing nano-technology features in fertilizer industry Reviewing literature shows that researches which have used nano-technology features in fertilizer industry are very rare. The main benefits of nanoparticles in these researches are using them as reservoir of fertilizer or as filler [79,80]. Solid nano-particles, have large surface areas and their reactivity is much more greater than that of micrometer size materials. Also, their surfaces and interfaces provide an active substrate for physical, chemical, and biological reactions [80]. Two published researches have done using nano-particles. One has used nano-clay as carrier of metal-urea complex; urea intercalated clay without any coating has been developed as slow release fertilizer[79]. In other one, a nanocomposite of nano particle, fertilizer and polymer has been granulated and developed as slow release fertilizer. The production method involves mixing monomers, adding nano particle, which could be nano clay, nano bentonite, nano kaolin, polymerization and then granulating the mixture. In this research nano particle just work as good and effective filler [81]. Making polymer-nano-particle composites is something common in industries. Lots of researches have been done in this area, but researches around using nano-particle as reservoir for fertilizer have been done rarely. For more study here, we will review the researches have been done. 2.9.1. Interc

Teenagers of Today’s World Have a Better School Life Than Their Parents Had When They Were at School

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Displaced populations of vulnerable areas are often subjected to poor sanitation and hygiene practices and inaccessible clean water, both as effects of crowding and being in an unfamiliar environment. It is the primary cause of communicable diseases following

Bans, Laws, And Taxes On Smoking Essay - 1020 Words

Bans, Laws, and Taxes on smoking With the changing of times, many places over the years have gone smoke free. Some of these places include: hospitals, airplanes, restaurants, bars, universities, schools, hotels and many others. One of the places in Anchorage that has recently gone smoke free is the University of Anchorage Alaska. According to an article titled â€Å"History of Smoke and Tobacco-Free UAA† (n.d.), â€Å"With the new policy, UAA joins more than 1,500 colleges and universities in the U.S. that are smoke or tobacco free.† This policy was voted for and created by students to positively influence the health of students and faculty in the University System and to decrease the amount of secondhand smoke. According to an article titled â€Å"UAA Smoke and Tobacco-Free† (n.d.), â€Å"The new smoke and tobacco-free policy encourages health and safety and promotes a supportive environment that helps those who want to quit and prevents young people from smoking and using tobacco in the first place.† UAA officially became a smoke free campus November 17, 2015 during the Great American Smokeout, and has provided resources for quitting. Additionally, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2014) states â€Å"Smokefree laws and policies have been proven to reduce the incidence of heart attacks and other coronary events among people younger than 65 years of age, and evidence suggests that there could be a relationship between such laws and policies and a reduction in cerebrovascularShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Secondhand Smoke On Public Places1548 Words   |  7 Pagessupported for an elongated period of time such as the one of smoking laws. 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The Government ofRead MoreSmoking In Public Places - The Smoking Ban Backlash Essay1723 Words   |  7 PagesSmoking Ban Backlash Walking down Boston’s Boylston Street at the late hours of the evening, the sidewalks are crowded with smokers taking their last hauls before entering the bars for a night of drinking. Due to the smoking ban in all public work areas that has been in effect since May of 2003, restaurant and bar patrons of Boston bear the cold winter season approaching, and reminisce about the old days where it was legal to enjoy a smoke with a cocktail at a bar. In May of 2003, BostonRead MoreCigarette Smoking Should Not Be Banned1528 Words   |  7 PagesShould cigarette smoking be banned for everyone in the United States? Why? Why not? Should those who chose their time smoking to relieve stress, personal enjoyment, or simply just because, have to lose their right to what makes them happy? Smoking tobacco products has been around for decades and in many different forms. 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Human Relationships-Frankenstein Essay - 1916 Words

Mary Shelly’s Frankenstein is book about the importance of human relationships and treating everyone with dignity and respect. The main character of the book is Victor Frankenstein who is a very intelligent man with a desire to create life in another being. After he completes his creation, he is horrified to find that what he has created is a monster. The monster is the ugliest, most disgusting creature that he has ever seen. Victor being sickened by his creation allows the monster to run off and become all alone in the world. Throughout Frankenstein, Mary Shelley uses the theme of human relationships to illustrate the bond that man has with other beings and the need for love and affection. The importance of human relationships†¦show more content†¦He tells of the void he feels in his soul. He tells of the bitter grief one experiences after the death of loved one and what it feels like to no longer see them and hear their voice. Mary Shelley illustrates that this life is not the end, but there is another life where loved ones will be seen. Victor’s mother is demonstrating how special Elizabeth is to her and that she wants her to take care of the family and to someday marry Victor. Later in the novel, Victor leaves for school. Victor’s father tells him, â€Å"I know that while you are pleased with yourself, you will think of us with affection, and we shall hear regularly from you. You must pardon me if I regard any interruption in your correspondence as a proof that your other duties are equally neglected†(33). After, Victor leaves for school to begin his studies he becomes self-absorbed in his work. Family is very important to Victor’s father. Victor realizes that he has become too involved in his studies and knows that it is unhealthy to behave in such a way. However, he does not want to quit and begins to justify his actions. He suggests that if others had given up, then history could have been altered. Vi ctor feels isolated and lonely. He thinks of his family and how disappointed they are that they have not heard from him. Shelly uses this quote to emphasize the importance of human relationships and how important they are to a person’s well-being. The theme of humanShow MoreRelated The Concepts Of Knowledge And Happiness In Mary Shelleys Frankenstein1001 Words   |  5 Pagesbecome greater than his nature will allow† (Shelley 60). In Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, she expresses her beliefs regarding the danger of pursuing happiness through the attainment of knowledge, because true happiness is found in the emotional connections established between people. The pursuit of knowledge is not necessarily an evil thing, but it can cause destruction when it is pursued beyond natural limits. 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Mary Shelly uses the deliberate structure of Frankenstein to makeRead MoreEssay on Relationship Between Frankenstein and the Creature1554 Words   |  7 PagesRelationship Between Frankenstein and the Creature Gothic novels are written mainly to strike fear in their readers; they also served to show the dark side of human nature. Nature is used often to create atmosphere. It predicts forthcoming events (e.g. the rainstorm on Victor’s wedding night foretells something evil is about to occur). A typical gothic tradition is the eerie atmosphere of Frankenstein. Victor, unafraid of the dark, spends his time in vaults and charnel Read MoreMary Shelleys Frankenstein Essay examples798 Words   |  4 PagesFrankenstein The novel, Frankenstein, by Mary Shelley portrays two characters, Victor Frankenstein and the monster. Despite their drastically different appearances and lives, Victor and the monster have many similarities. 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The Milgram Experiment Free Essays

string(173) " actually had to force the learner’s hand onto a shock plate in order to punish him; about 30 percent of subjects continued the variation until the end \(Fermaglich 86\)\." The Milgram Experiment Outline Topic: The Milgram experiment I) The experiment A) Who was involved with the experiment? B) How they got participants C) What the subjects thought was happening i)Learning Task ii) Memory Study iii) Electric shock for wrong answer iv) â€Å"Prods† to continue the shocks D) What actually happened i) It was a test for obedience not memory ii) Vocal response from the victims (staged and set beforehand) II) The results A) How many experiments were performed B) How many people were tested C) How many continued the experiment D) The video of obedience E) What types of people were tested, and what difference that made F) Differences between each test and results G) High levels of stress for subjects III) Why did he do the experiment A) To get an understanding of Nazis B) To prove the â€Å"answer to destructive obedience lay less in the power of personality and more in the power of situation† C) Social projection D) Test the idea that some people consider themselves better than others IV) The reaction A) Self realization B) Unethical i) Manipulation ii) Disregard for rights iii) Negligent of emotional well being C) Argument in ethics caused new rules in APA guidelines V) Applications A) Nazi Germany B) U. S. wars C) Watergate Many experiments have been performed throughout the years. We will write a custom essay sample on The Milgram Experiment or any similar topic only for you Order Now One of the most shocking would have to be the Milgram experiment performed by Stanley Milgram. The experiment was to test a person’s â€Å"Obedience to Authority† by seeing if he or she would cause harm to another just because they were told. The idea of obedience has been instilled in people since the time of Cain and Able, with regard to doing as God says. There are multiple reasons for Dr. Milgram to perform this experiment, however, some did not accept this and still believed it to be a violation of the subjects human rights. The results showed that even though people believed they would not cause extreme harm to another, they would if put in the position where they were pressured to by an authoritative person. This resulted in chaos in the psychological community, and concluded in major changes to what is moral, and ethical, under the guidelines provided by APA. However, his results may be used to consider what happened during World War II, along with other U. S. ars, as well as what happened during the Watergate scandal. This experiment was performed many times. It began with Dr. Milgram placing an ad in a New Haven newspaper. The advertisement asked for people between the ages of 20 and 50, those who were not currently attending school, and from all types of professions. It also claimed the experiment would last one hour, and that it was to study memory. Those who participated in the experiment would receive four dollars for participating, and fifty cents for carfare, for the one hour of participation. From this ad, he did not get enough of a response so Dr. Milgram took names from a phone directory, and send fliers in the mail. The experiment itself was performed in the Interaction Laboratory of Yale University. It consisted of two people who were aware of what was happening, one called the â€Å"experimenter,† the person in charge of managing the experiment, and another called, â€Å"the victim. † A third, was one other person involved with the experiment called the â€Å"naive subject† who was the one being tested in this experiment. The experiment called for two different perspectives, which were what the â€Å"naive subject† believed to be happening, and what was really happening. The experiment was set up so that according to the â€Å"naive subject,† â€Å"the victim† was told to memorize a list of word pairs such as: blue box nice day wild duck etc. then in the testing sequence he [the naive subject] would read: blue: sky ink box lamp (Obedience 18). If â€Å"the victim† was able to select the correct corresponding word, the â€Å"naive subject† continued by saying the next word. However, if â€Å"the victim† did not answer correctly, or took too long in answering, the â€Å"naive subject† would have to administer a shock. After each wrong answer, the next wrong answer would result in a stronger shock. The generator, which was to administer the shocks to â€Å"the victim†: Ranged from 15 to 450 volts. The labels showed a 15-volt increment from one switch to the next, going from left to right. In addition, the following verbal designations were clearly indicated for groups of four switches, going from left to right: Slight Shock, Moderate Shock, Strong Shock, Very Strong Shock, Intense Shock, Extreme Intensity Shock, Danger: Severe Shock. Two switches after this last designation were simply marked XXX. (Obedience 20) The authenticity of the generator was validated by giving the â€Å"naive subject† a 45 volt shock to the wrist. The test which the â€Å"naive subject† thought was a test for memory, was actually to test a person’s willingness to follow authority. Therefore, as the voltage was to increase, there were acted protests by â€Å"the victim† which made the â€Å"naive subject† less willing to continue. However, if the â€Å"naive subject† was having second thoughts about continuing, the â€Å"experimenter† was to give â€Å"prods† each more aggressive as the â€Å"naive subject† continued to protest, Prod 1: Please continue, or, Please go on. Prod 2: The experiment requires that you continue. Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue. Prod 4: You have no other choice you must go on (Obedience 21). Feeling obligated even though â€Å"the victim† responded with cries of pain and eventually no answer, the majority of those did continue. The results of this experiment were interesting. In the primary experiment 26 out of 40 people continued to shock a person with what he or she believed to be 450 volts for an incorrect answer, or if they did not respond within a time limit set by the â€Å"experimenter. Another variation of this experiment he performed in which he: placed the learner closer to the teacher, including one in which the teacher actually had to force the learner’s hand onto a shock plate in order to punish him; about 30 percent of subjects continued the variation until the end (Fermaglich 86). You read "The Milgram Experiment" in category "Papers" There was another variation which used on ly women. The results were the same as those for men. Over three years, Dr. Milgram performed 24 different variations of his original experiment, and tested over 1,000 people. There was also one case in which Dr. Milgram videotaped a subject’s obedience, â€Å"In the full version of Milgram’s film Prozi [the subject] is shown ending up being completely obedient- that is, administering a 450-volt shock to the unseen learner† (Blass). Another result of this experiment was the experiment had a huge impact on those who were the subjects. It resulted in high levels of stress in those who were subjects, whether they obeyed or disobeyed, which Dr. Milgram himself admitted to happening, and so he had to provide a meeting for the subject and the learner, in order to try to alleviate that stress (Fermaglich 87). Although the experiment was performed many times, and on many different people, this proved that the majority will follow orders when they are given, even if it goes against their conscience. These were not the only results from this experiment; people had other thoughts about Dr. Milgram’s experiment. There have been many who have wondered why a man would perform a test that many people consider to be a violation of a person’s basic rights. Dr. Milgram had many reasons behind performed these experiments. Dr. Milgram believed â€Å"When you think of the long and gloomy history of man, you will ind more hideous crimes have been committed in the name of obedience than have ever been committed in the name of rebellion† (Obedience 2). He wanted to be able to prove his belief that the â€Å"answer to destructive obedience lay less in the power of personality and more in the power of situation† (Slater 31). He also performed it with relation to the Holocaust, an d since Milgram, â€Å"a Jewish man whose relatives had hidden from the Nazis and been interned in concentration camps, [he] constructed his experiments in order to understand Nazi evil† (Fermaglich 84). Another idea posed as a reason for Dr. Milgram’s performance was the thought of â€Å"self-other bias (Brown, 1986) [which] is the general tendency for people to rate themselves as better than ‘typical others’† (Geher, Bauman, Hubbard, and Legare 3). There were those who believed the experiment to be unethical, and others who seem to be enlightened with a sense of self realization. One person found Dr. Milgram’s experiment to give him a better sense of who he was: I felt a shock of recognition, and the immediate knowledge that I could do such a thing, unsteady as I am. And I knew I could do such a thing, not because some strange set of circumstances propelled me to, no†¦It was not external. It was internal (Slater 62) However most other people who did not participate in the experiment did not feel this way, they felt this experiment was â€Å"the subject of enormous controversy, centered on the contention that his research subjects had been unethically manipulated, without due regard for their rights or emotional well-being† (Schwartz). In the field of psychology there was an uproar, with those who found the experiment to be reprehensible. One of those people was Diana Baumrind who questioned the obedience experiment, with concern for the welfare of the subjects, and curiosity over measures taken to protect those involved and voiced her concerns in American Psychologist (Individual 140). Dr. Baumrind’s article concerning the experiment resulted in the revision of APA ethical guidelines, which went with those laid down by the federal government, which limited the use of humans as subjects in the medical and psychological field (Fermaglich 103). Many found what Dr. Milgram did to be unethical, however because of it people now have a better understanding of what they are able to do, and they are able to apply his findings to other situations that have occurred, and may happen in the future. This experiment may be applied to a multitude of different subjects that are in a person’s every day life. The major subject would be the Nazis during World War II, which was a motive for Dr. Milgram to do the experiment in the beginning. It explores why a citizen who â€Å"ran the death camps seemed to be ordinary â€Å"decent† citizens, with consciences no different from those of any of us† (Velasquez et al). Dr. Milgram also compares the killing of Jews in the gas chambers to the manufacturing of appliances, and he says all of those deaths could not have occurred if a large number of people did not obey orders (Obedience 1). The ideas that Dr. Milgram came up with were applied as an explanation for â€Å"the massacre of hundreds of Vietnamese civilians at My Lai and the criminal activities in Nixon’s White House: ‘Stanley Milgram†¦ demonstrated in the laboratory what Lt. William Calley and his unit would dramatize later in Mylai- that man’s behavior is almost invariably dominated by authority rather than by his own morality’† (Fermaglich 111). This idea is also exemplified on television, as on a recent episode of â€Å"Law and Order: S. V. U. † viewers encounter a manager of a fast food restaurant who blatantly obeys the orders of a voice over the phone saying that he is â€Å"Detective Milgram. † The manager is told that an employee stole the wallet of a customer, and â€Å"Detective Milgram† tells the manager to strip the girl of all of her clothing except for her apron, and to perform a cavity search, to look for the wallet. Later in the episode we encounter the man who posed as â€Å"Detective Milgram† who performed his own variation of the experiment, because he had been like the manager, when he allowed the doctor to go against his advice, which resulted in the death of his wife. During school, a person may be faced with a similar situation. One being seeing a person cheat on a test. The person is put in a situation with two choices, neither desirable. The person may tell the teacher, which results in anger from the person who was told on, as well as a loss of time for that person to take their own test. The other option is to do nothing, which in the long run will hurt the student as he or she never learned the material, as he or she was suppose to. Typically a student will choose the latter, and ignore the situation, which ends up hurting the other student. This examination can be viewed on a vast number of levels, but that does not change the facts and ideas behind what happened. Dr. Milgram performed a venture which is thought to have been unethical, as he tested a person’s willingness to follow orders and do as he or she was told. He discovered the majority would actually do so, even if they believed they were hurting an innocent person. The controversial research has had a variety of impacts on every different person. For some they have a self realization, thinking of why type of person he or she is and if they are sheep, blindly following authority. Works Cited for Research Paper: Blass, Thomasm. â€Å"The Milgram Obedience Experiment: Support for a Cognitive View of Defensive Attribution. † The Journal of Social Psychology (1996). library. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. . Fermaglich, Kirsten. American Dreams and Nazi Nightmares : Early Holocaust Consciousness and Liberal America, 1957-1965. Waltham, Mass. : Brandeis University Press, 2006. Geher, Glenn, Kathleen P. Bauman, Sara Elizabeth Kay Hubbard, and Jared Richard Legare. â€Å"Self and Other Obedience Estimates: Biases and Moderators. † The Journal of Social Psychology 142. 6 (2002): 677. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. Milgram, Stanley. Obedience to Authority. N ew York: Harper Perennial, 1974. Milgram, Stanley. The Individual in a Social World: Essays and Experiments. Reading, Mass. : Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1977. Schwartz, Earl. â€Å"Why Some Ask Why. † Judaism 53. 3/4 (2004): 230. elibrary. Web. 24 Nov. 2009. Slater, Lauren. Opening Skinner’s Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century. New York: W. W. Norton, 2004. Velasquez, Manuel, Claire Andre, Thomas Shanks, S. J. , and Michael J. Meyer. â€Å"Conscience and Authority. † Santa Clara University. 12/03/2009 . How to cite The Milgram Experiment, Papers The Milgram Experiment Free Essays Stanley Milgram: ‘electric shock’ experiments (1963) – also showed the power of the situation in influencing behaviour. 65% of people could be easily induced into giving a stranger an electric shock of 450V (enough to kill someone). 100% of people could be influenced into giving a 275V shock. We will write a custom essay sample on The Milgram Experiment or any similar topic only for you Order Now The Milgram Experiment Stanley Milgram (1963) Experiment: Focusing on the conflict between obedience to authority and personal conscience. Investigate: Whether Germans were particularly obedient to authority figures as this was a common explanation for the Nazi killings in World War II. Milgram selected participants for his experiment by advertising for male participants to take part in a study of learning at Yale University. The procedure was that the participant was paired with another person and they drew lots to find out who would be the ‘learner’ and who would be the ‘teacher’. The draw was fixed so that the participant was always the teacher, and the learner was one of Milgram’s confederates (pretending to be a real participant). The learner (a confederate called Mr. Wallace) was taken into a room and had electrodes attached to his arms, and the teacher and researcher went into a room next door that contained an electric shock generator and a row of switches marked from 15 volts (Slight Shock) to 375 volts (Danger: Severe Shock) to 450 volts (XXX). Milgram’s Experiment Aim: Milgram (1963) was interested in researching how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person. Stanley Milgram was interested in how easily ordinary people could be influenced into committing atrocities for example, Germans in WWII. Procedure: Volunteers were recruited for a lab experiment investigating â€Å"learning† (ethics: deception). Participants were 40 males, aged between 20 and 50, (bias: All male) whose jobs ranged from unskilled to professional. At the beginning of the experiment they were introduced to another participant, who was actually a confederate of the experimenter (Milgram). They drew straws to determine their roles – leaner or teacher – although this was fixed and the confederate always ended to the learner. There was also an â€Å"experimenter† dressed in a white lab coat, played by an actor (not Milgram). The â€Å"learner† (Mr. Wallace) was strapped to a chair in another room with electrodes. After he has learned a list of word pairs given him to learn, the â€Å"teacher† tests him by naming a word and asking the learner to recall its partner/pair from a list of four possible choices. The teacher is told to administer an electric shock every time the learner makes a mistake, increasing the level of shock each time. There were 30 switches on the shock generator marked from 15 volts (slight shock) to 450 (danger – severe shock). The learner gave mainly wrong answers (on purpose) and for each of these the teacher gave him an electric shock. When the teacher refused to administer a shock and turned to the experimenter for guidance, he was given the standard instruction /order (consisting of 4 prods): Prod 1: please continue. Prod 2:  the experiment requires you to continue. Prod 3: It is absolutely essential that you continue. Prod 4: you have no other choice but to continue. Results: 65% (two-thirds) of participants (i. e. teachers) continued to the highest level of 450 volts. All the participants continued to 300 volts. Milgram did more than one experiment – he carried out 18 variations of his study. All he did was alter the situation (IV) to see how this affected obedience (DV). Conclusion: Ordinary people are likely to follow orders given by an authority figure, even to the extent of killing an innocent human being. Obedience to authority is ingrained in us all from the way we are brought up. Obey parents, teachers, anyone in authority etc. Milgram summed up in the article â€Å"The Perils of Obedience† (Milgram 1974), writing: â€Å"The legal and philosophic aspects of obedience are of enormous import, but they say very little about how most people behave in concrete situations. I set up a simple experiment at Yale University to test how much pain an ordinary citizen would inflict on another person simply because he was ordered to by an experimental scientist. Stark authority was pitted against the subjects’ [participants’] strongest moral imperatives against hurting others, and, with the subjects’ [participants’] ears ringing with the screams of the victims, authority won more often than not. The extreme willingness of adults to go to almost any lengths on the command of an authority constitutes the chief finding of the study and the fact most urgently demanding explanation. Factors Affecting Obedience The Milgram experiment was carried out many times whereby Milgram varied the basic procedure (changed the IV). By doing this Milgram could identify which factors affected obedience (the DV). Status of Location| Personal Responsibility| * The orders were given in an important location (Yale University) – when Milgram’s study was conducted in a run-down office in the city, obedience levels dropped. * This suggests that prestige increases obedience. | *   When there is less personal responsibility obedience increases. When participants could instruct an assistant to press the switches, 95% (compared to 65% in the original study) shocked to the maximum 450 volts. * This relates to Milgram’s Agency Theory. | Legitimacy of Authority Figure| Status of Authority Figure| * People tend to obey orders from other people if they recognize their authority as morally right and / or legally based. * This response to legitimate authority is learned in a variety of situations, for example in the family, school and workplace. | *   Milgram’s experimenter wore a laboratory coat (a symbol of scientific expertise) which gave him a high status. But when the experimenter dressed in everyday clothes obedience was very low. * The  uniform  of the authority figure can give them status. | Peer Support | Proximity of Authority Figure| * Peer support – if a person has the social support of their friend(s) then obedience is less likely. * Also the presence of others who are seen to disobey the authority figure reduces the level of obedience. This happened in Milgram’s experiment when there was a â€Å"disobedient model†. | *   Authority figure distant: It is easier to resist the orders from an authority figure if they are not close by. When the experimenter instructed and prompted the teacher by telephone from another room, obedience fell to 20. 5%. * When the authority figure is close by then obedience is more likely. | Methodological Issues The  Milgram studies  were conducted in laboratory type conditions and we must ask if this tells us much about real-life situations. We obey in a variety of real-life situations that are far more subtle than instructions to give people electric shocks, and it would be interesting to see what factors operate in everyday obedience. The sort of situation Milgram investigated would be more suited to a military context. Milgram’s sample was biased: The participants in Milgram’s study were all male. Do the findings transfer to females? In Milgram’s study the participants were a self-selecting sample. This is because they became participants only by electing to respond to a newspaper advertisement (selecting themselves). They may also have a typical â€Å"volunteer personality† – not all the newspaper readers responded so perhaps it takes this personality type to do so. Finally, they probably all had a similar income since they were willing to spend some hours working for a given amount of money. Ethical Issues *   Deception  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ the participants actually believed they were shocking a real person, and were unaware the learner was a confederate of Milgram’s *   Protection of participants  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Participants were exposed to extremely stressful situations that may have the potential to cause psychological harm. * However, Milgram did  debrief  the participants fully after the experiment and also followed up after a period of time to ensure that they came to no harm. How to cite The Milgram Experiment, Papers

Information System Project Management Professional Management

Question: Discuss about the Information System Project Management for Professional Management. Answer: Introduction The digital era in day to day life of common people is stepping with rapid speed and professionally as well. With the introduction of the digital process, the major aspects related to techniques are also improving gradually. But on the other hand with the increase in technology, the risk related to confidentiality, integrity and maintenance of data is also keep on increasing. To avoid this risk and to manage the process of preservation of data, it is essential that the risk assessment techniques should be adapted in the appropriate manner. By this, the risk related to data preservation can be managed and identified effectively. Apart from this, the control and management of data preservation is also essential, because in this periodic transfer of data can be done from one location to another. Thus, in this process hardware and software installation also matters a lot. This report is mainly helpful in covering the major aspects related to the research, risk assessment, communication r isk and suitable recommendations (University of Glasgow, 2016). Research The research is considered as the most innovative part of any report. To manage the detailed content and to identify the major perspectives, it is essential that the research work should be strong and strengthned. The literature review is identified as the most suitable method for providing the appropriate feedback to the organization as well as for managing the risk assessment. The different research work is not only helpful in providing the appropriate result, but by this the actual results related to the process can be obtained properly. According to the article defined by Sally Vermateen and Brian Lavoie, the appropriate model is planned for defining SPOT model in which the risk assessment is planned for future perspectives by this model. The author defines that the SPOT model is helpful in the preservation of data, development of component strategy, assessment of risk and introduction of modular approach towards development (Vermaaten, Lavoie, Caplan, 2012). Apart from this, by this model internal as well as external risk assessment can be done in a suitable manner. By choosing these options, the developmental aspects related to an organization would become more developed and appropriate. Through this paper, the author also defines the methods, procedures and theories for the development and modification of the organization in an appropriate manner. Another paper is identified from the group of five authors who are directly and indirectly responsible for generating their personal views on the particular topic. According to these five authors, various aspects related to risk assessment are demonstrated. The impact of different factors on risk assessment is trying to be recognized. By this research paper, the author also displays the risk associated with general file format and risk associated with the data file format is also identified on the initial level (Lawrence, Kehoe, Rieger, Walters, Kenney, 2000). In this contrast to access the data and to format the particular data; software development, suitable installment of public FTP guidelines and suitable internet aspects are shown with the help of this information and data provided. In short, the data preservation considers as the most innovative step in introducing the concept of securing the data in a better and more appropriate format. In the article which is related to techniques are correlated to the preservation and saving the data in an appropriate manner. It is defined that the preservation of data can be done only with the help of major techniques, such as safely migration of data and usage of bit stream technique for securing the data. Out of all these, the most appropriate method is the hidden data to maintain the dignity and consistency of data on the wider level. In this article, the working strategy of individual process is identified in proper manner and through these techniques, the suitable results have been tried to originate (Dappert Enders, 2010). The emulation and data processing is also identified as the process in which the data emulation and processing of the unique process can be maintained at initial level. The techniques related to sustainability and management aspects of data preservation are also defined with the help of migration of data techniques. The final article which is selected for the discussion is related to most appropriate and stable model selected for the preservation of data. This model is identified as the Open Archival Information System (OAIS) (Sawyer, 2014). The authors have provided the most appropriate approach to identify the existing process and by this process, the introduction of new concept can be identified in the proper manner. In this article cum research paper, the archiving of current data is shown in a suitable manner. The model not only provides the security aspects, but also provides various alternatives for the improvement of the current aspects defined in the organization. By identifying all these aspects and understanding the suitable literature review, the actual status of the data preservation is cleared and become accurate. By these aspects, the various thoughts and innovative approach of researchers can be identified on appropriate level. The further paragraphs are helpful in defining the communication, risk and recommendations related to the data preservation technique (ICPSR, Institute, Center, 2011). Risk Assessment The risk assessment is identified as the process in which the identification of the risk can be done on a wide level. To manage risk and to identify the major causes related to risk, it is essential to prepare a strategic plan to approach risk in a proper manner. Before performing the task related to risk assessment, it is essential to identify the digital preservation threats which are identified. There are two types of threats that are identified in a large scale. These threats are threats to archive digital content and threats to custodial threats itself. To manage the risk assessment on a wide level, there is still need of light weight and framed model by which an assessment of risk can be done on an appropriate level (Lavoie, 2012). To perform suitable risk assessment for the preservation of data, various researchers propounded their different views related to risk assessment and also provided their different approaches on the risk assessment. Some of them have thought that risk assessment is helpful in painting basic perspectives related to assessment of risk and others developed the thought that risk assessment will be result oriented, when operated with different type of situation for the data preservation (Canteiro Barateiro, 2011). The identification and support of SPOT model will be more result oriented in case of risk assessment related to data preservation. The SPOT model which is commonly identified as the simple property oriented threat is mainly helpful in solving the issues related to the external and internal threats. The six essentials are identified in the SPOT models which simultaneously coordinated to manage risk in an appropriate way (ENISA, 2009). These major essentials are available, persistence, suitable existence, identification of suitable understanding and appropriate authenticity in processing of aspects. By following this concept of essential elements in an organization, the major improvement aspects can be identified easily. The SPOT model is also based on the generation of suitable outcomes in which, the evaluation of own risk and mitigation strategies are being identified on the initial level. Another method is the preservation of metadata for managing risk and maintaining the appropriate criteria for the suitable evaluation in a right manner. In Meta data, the information is transferred from one location to another. The individual files cannot be carried from one location to another so for this, it is essential to carry the multiple files or the interrelated files also. If these interrelated files will not travel with one another, then data transfer will not be completed and current files wont be considered of any importance. The execution of Meta data can be managed in the digital format and by this, the security chances can be lost easily. So, the assessment of risk on this level is also essential to be identified and managed in a proper manner. With the help of the migration analysis method, the risk assessment related to the aspect can be studied in a very approached and attractive manner. In the migration analysis method, the data is transferred from one location to another location in a most approached way (HSE Team, 2014). The risk occurs at that time only. For removing the risk, the strategic risk management scheme needs to be planned. In this type of assessment, three aspects are identified. These aspects are known as risk associated with collection of general material, risk related to general file format and one of the innovative aspects is the risk related to the file format conversion process. By identifying all these risk aspects on the migration analysis perspectives, the major risk can be solved easily. The threat models are also identified as the practical tools which are used repositories to identify the risk assessment. The repository factor is also helpful in identifying the re- development of the component, policies and procedures on a wide level. Apart from these processes, there are other process too which are helpful in identifying the major risk factors and also helps in assessment of risk in broader form. The risk assessment is also considered as an area for the discussion because by accessing the risk, the measurement aspects can easily be identified and the better solutions or alternatives can be generated on a large scale. Communication Risk Communication risk is identified as the factor in which the major risk related to existing system got identified. In this section, the outlining of major risk can be performed in an appropriate direction. The major risks which are related to the data preservation are identified as archiving and retention of data. Both these aspects are considered on the wide level and the identification of these issues is also very tough to identify. In the communication risk apart from these issues, other issues can also be included which are defined above in the paragraphs. Various organizations dont want to secure or save the data. Due to this, they have to face loss of data and various crises also arises in the organization. To manage the preservation of data and to manage archiving of particular data, suitable processes are adapted to manage the risk. With the development in the changing aspects, the technology and its perspectives are also changing with the rapid rate. With the change in technique, the ways of communication are also changing due to which, risk of communication may also increase simultaneously. While doing communication, the chances of data loss, integrity of data and hindrance in the growth of data occurs commonly. To avoid this situation and to maintain the dignity of data, various steps are identified which are helpful in improving the existing condition of the data preservation in all the possible conditions. Apart from archiving and retention, there are various other communication risks that are identified on the wide level. These are related to the faulted vendors who are mainly on fault due to sending and transferring unauthorized data from one vendor to other, legal faults and the faults of management people, due to which the communication risks are becoming very common. Facing the issues and managing them in a patience manner is essential. To manage the communication risk for preservation of data, it is essential to manage some of the perspectives like management of records, identification of appropriate methods to overcome archiving and retention and many other processes defined on the large scale. By following the basic recommendations and precautions, data preservation issue can be solved in a better way. Recommendation By assuming all the perspectives and identifications, it is clearly identified that the specific theories are identified for the improvement of digital data preservation. In the above discussion, there are various theories and concepts introduced to reach the target, but simultaneously the strong strategic approach is required for an improvement. The most appropriate aspects for an improvement of the existing structure are the clarity in concept, detailing in the aspects and the appropriate management of process, proper comprehensiveness and transparency in the existing structure. By this, the suitable preservation of data can become possible on a major level. Apart from this, the Commission on Preservation and Access (CPA) and Research Libraries Group (RLG) defines various norms and policies by which, the management of digital data can be done on a wide level and periodic transfer of digital material in an appropriate manner will be helpful in doing a suitable execution in the well-organized manner. Some of the guidelines that are defined by CPA and RLG in joint venture are defined below: - It is recommended by the authorities that transfer of data and information should be carried out in the right direction or in a confidential format. By this, the confidentiality of data will be ruined so, data transfer preservation can be done in an encrypted format (Team, 2009). The digital files should be refreshed on the routine level. This will be helpful in reducing the risk at large extent and the purpose of digital data preservation can be solved at the core level. The change in the digital formats and the conversion of existing format in the other form is also identified as the suitable method of transferring file from one location to another. For an example, the conversion of one file to the different format like ASCII and many other formats on initial level. The suitable format is also identified for migrating the data from one location to another. The safe migration of data is identified as the key aspect for an improvement and development of a risk assessment plan or data preservation The software also possesses major role in maintaining data observation in completing the suitable process. With the help of software, the transfer of data from one location to another is essential to carried (University College London, 2016). Apart from these recommendations, the intellectual foundation steps are also considered on priority. By adapting these steps, various aspects can be solved on the wide level and the issues related to the preservation of data may get easier. These steps are identified as preserving the digital information on the initial level, installation of OAIS model for solving the purpose of major issues, identification of repository models so that the major issues can be solved and identification of inter Pares which is helpful in coordinating manner to manage issue related to the digital preservation. By adapting all these major recommendations and improvement processes, the processing of management and maintenance of data preservation can become possible. The modifications in the recommendations are also required along with the defined process. This will generate the suitable output as per the requirement. References Canteiro, S., Barateiro, J. (2011, November 04). Risk Assessment in Digital Preservation of e-Science Data and Processes. Risk Assessment in Digital Preservation of e-Science Data and Processes. Retrieved from https://www.timbusproject.net/resources/publications/articles/71-risk-assessment-in-digital-preservation-of-e-science-data-and-processes Dappert, A., Enders, M. (2010). Special issue: Digital preservation. NISO. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/standards/premis/FE_Dappert_Enders_MetadataStds_isqv22no2.pdf ENISA. (2009, November). Inventory of Risk Management / Risk Assessment Methods and Tools. Inventory of Risk Management / Risk Assessment Methods and Tools. Retrieved from https://www.enisa.europa.eu/topics/threat-risk-management/risk-management/current-risk/risk-management-inventory HSE Team. (2014). Risk assessment: A brief guide to controlling risks in the workplace. HSE. Retrieved from https://www.hse.gov.uk/pUbns/indg163.pdf ICPSR, Institute, T. O., Center, T. R. (2011). Data Preservation Alliance for the Social Sciences. Harvard University. Retrieved from https://www.digitalpreservation.gov/partners/documents/Data-PASS_NDIIPP_Final_Report.pdf Lavoie, B. (2012). Preservation metadata as an evidence base for risk assessment. OCLC. Retrieved from https://www.oclc.org/content/dam/research/events/2012/10-02e.pdf Lawrence, G., Kehoe, W., Rieger, O., Walters, W., Kenney, A. (2000). Risk Management of Digital Information: A File Format Investigation. Council on Library and Information Resources. Retrieved from https://www.clir.org/pubs/reports/pub93/pub93.pdf Sawyer, D. (2014). The Open Archival Information System and the NSSDC. The Open Archival Information System and the NSSDC. Retrieved from https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nssdc_news/dec00/oais.html Team, I. (2009). Principles and Good Practice for Preserving Data. Interuniversity Consortium for Political and Social Research (ICPSR). Retrieved from https://www.ihsn.org/home/sites/default/files/resources/IHSN-WP003.pdf University College London. (2016). Research Data Management: best practices. Research Data Management: best practices. University of Glasgow. (2016). Preservation issues. Retrieved from https://handbook.dpconline.org: https://handbook.dpconline.org/digital-preservation/preservation-issues Vermaaten, S., Lavoie, B., Caplan, P. (2012, October). Identifying Threats to Successful Digital Preservation: the SPOT Model for Risk Assessment. Identifying Threats to Successful Digital Preservation: the SPOT Model for Risk Assessment, 18(10). Retrieved from https://www.dlib.org/dlib/september12/vermaaten/09vermaaten.html